Travel impressions IV
IV.
Neferkare and Antef I, were followed respectively by Kheti III from Heracleopolis and Uakhankh Antef II from Thebes, they inherited the dynastic conflict, the eternal rivalry between the north and south.
Kheti III, embarked on the ambitious venture of conquer the prefecture of Abidos at the South and also in expel the Asian invaders out of the Delta. Later, his successor, Merikare, would be forced to leave Heracleopolis, fleeing from a citizen revolt prompted by the general uprising of the cities of the Delta, once again they were jealous of its independence, so the king rushed to seek shelter between the princes of Siut, who managed to restore the power to Merikare. The kings of Thebes at that time took advantage of the attrition suffered by both sides to undertake the conquest of the North, in a similar way to as Narmer (Menes) had made a thousand years before.
Heracleopolis and their faithful allies of the territories of Siut and Hermopolis, could not resist a long time, the attacks of the hosts of Antef III, who despite his military success, he would have to immediately deal with the anxieties of the independence of the Delta and the lands of feudal princes, who once again, at this time, they rebelled against the new Theban dynasty , unsuccessfully insomuch as all the territories were “pacified” after several battles. Thereafter, in imitation of the dynasties of Heracleopolis, all efforts of the kings of Thebes were directed to attempt to recover the central role of the monarchy such as it had existed before the feudal period.
Mentuhotep III (Mentu is satisfied), probably was who really conducted that thing of what it already boasted Mentuhotep II: the “pacification” of the Upper and Lower Egypt. But as according to the feudal code, the monarch was then, just the first of the princes, and as the feudal prince only recognizes to the god of his own nomo above him, it was need to impose a religious reform in order to change this fact. During the feudal period, the vast majority of people had fallen into illiteracy, and religious conceptions were denatured, causing an involutional process by which the Upper Egypt had returned to the primitive worship of the goddess mother. Mut at Thebes was the tutelary goddess of the city, in Cusae she was Hathor, in Nekhen she was Nekhbet, etc, on the other hand endures the influence of the cult of Min, who at this time, it traditionally associated with Horus, and that exceeded widely the field of Koptos.
The prefecture of Un (Jmun) as the former colony of Hermopolis (Per Djehuti “Thot’s house”) retained the worship of the prestigious god Thot, around of what is stablished the necessary syncretism , in which the dynasties of Thebes were supported.
It was necessary to construct a new theology, to recover some of the essence of sun worship, if they wanted rid of the feudal monarchy of ballast, and for this effect was updated an archaic god, Amon, to place it into the theology of Thot, in the site that Ra occupied, in the solar cosmogony.
Abidos and Un share importance in religious matters, Amon was promoted from the prefecture of Un, while Abidos remains the center of the cult of Osiris. Once in a lifetime at least it was mandatory for the faithful, a pilgrimage to Abidos, and so much was in that way, that who could not to do it during his life, had to do it after death, for what the dead were provided, into his grave, with tiny symbolic boats with which to reach Abidos. Around this time also the offerings that have traditionally belonged to the deceased, become offerings to Osiris, judge of the dead, in order to motivate this god to be benign with the deceased.
The next goal against the feudal system was achieved by Mentuhotep III, who reinstated the profession of vizier, with the peculiarity that it was no longer , a hereditary title , and therefore it escaped from the feudal framework . In a short time, it is added to the title of vizier, the title of “Hatia”(prince), what placed to the vizier at an equal level of else princes, and later, besides, the vizier came to use the honorary degrees, so baroque, inherited from the era Memphite, such as “Chancellor of the King and director of the High Court and Chief of the Court of the Six Halls”, in this way the King through the vizier, using his legal and administrative power against the nobles, stood at the top of the hierarchical pyramid reconstituted.
Mentuhotep III took pains to keep open the route of the caravans, the Wadi Hammamat, to trade between the cities of the Nile and the Arabian markets and the Punt, (somewhere on the Somali coast), thereby strengthening the tax benefits of the monarchy. Mentuhotep IV opened quarries in the area and Mentuhotep V ended to build a port at Wadi Gasus, which started Mentuhotep IV in the Red Sea coast.
Mentuhotep IV was expelled from the throne probably by some nobles conspirators, putting an usurper Mentuhotep V in his place, who neither lasted so much, due to a new usurper, who was deposed soon afterwards by a man outside the nobility, former vizier of Mentuhotep V, Amenemhat I ( “Amun is underway”,or also “Amon is the first one” ) who founded the Twelfth Dynasty. The feudal princes came to consider intolerable that an official hold to power, so that by dark palace intrigues, they achieved to kill Amenemhat, after several attempts, but they could not do the same with his son, Sesostris I, who inherited the crown.
Besides these political vicissitudes, which also are reflected in the tale of this period “Sinuhe“, dynasties XI and XII were at pains to recover the artistic techniques and construction, which had virtually disappeared and in order to fight against the abandonment, they spreaded temples and all kind of monuments from here to there, even in areas outside the territory of Egypt. Much was lost during the feudal period, however the cities of the North probably had preserved the essence, (several statues, curiously manufactured in wood, are from this period) from which again arise, the Egyptian monumental art, but never exceeded the level reached during the Old Empire. The statue of Mentuhotep II and even his funerary complex in Deir el Bahari, are alien to the tradition and represent an innovation, although onwards is tried to seek a return to classicism.
(will continue)
Las distintas creencias sobre la vida en el mas allá, que habían florecido durante el periodo feudal pueden ser agrupadas en dos sistemas, el modelo solar en torno a Amón Ra y el sistema religioso agrario en torno a Osiris en el norte y Min en el sur, y ambos, el sistema solar y el agrario, se encuentran elaboradamente entretejidos en el “Libro de los Muertos”.
El culto a Amón es el culto de la monarquía, y el centro de esta nueva teología sería la nueva ciudad santa de Karnak donde se edificó el santuario de Amon, del que solo se conserva un pequeño quiosco erigido por Sesostris I. Amón (Ra) sufrió una adaptación bastante radical en el intento de asociarlo a Osiris, de tal forma que en adelante Ra, un ente incorpóreo, absolutamente espiritual en su origen, acabará siendo espíritu solo durante el día y durante el viaje subterráneo nocturno será Iufu (Auf-Ra, “las carnes”, el carnero), investido de cuerpo material, un retorcido concepto, emanado del propio mito de Osiris, donde Ra se “contamina” con la materia en el momento de la resurrección de Osiris, al abrazar el cadáver de este, cuando el espíritu creador (Ra) y el bien (Osiris) se funden.
Amenemhat IV es el ultimo rey de la XII dinastía, le sucede la reina Sebeknefrure, posiblemente como regente en lugar de un hijo menor de edad, sin embargo poco después toma el poder Sekhemre Khutaui, quien inaugura la XIII dinastía . Numerosos reyes se suceden en cuestión de 50 años, adoptando los nombres reales de Amenemhat y Sesostris, lo cual es indicio de una cierta continuidad en la política centralizadora de la XII dinastía. Son tiempos oscuros para algunos investigadores, como oscuro es el movimiento de gentes que desde el norte empuja a los beduinos contra las fronteras de Egipto, son los tiempos del bíblico José, el hijo de Jacob.
Mientras los aqueos conquistan Grecia, los hititas se instalan en Asia menor y losmedos y los persas se apoderan del actual Irán; florece la Babilonia deHammurabi, durante un breve periodo Egipto recupera su influencia sobre la costa Siria y el imperio comercial minoico alcanza su apogeo. En un mundo convulso, Egipto intentó adaptarse a la nueva situación admitiendo en su territorio a “los portadores de manadas”, es decir a los que eran solventes, en lugar de cerrar sus fronteras frente a la avalancha humana.
Después de Seankhtaui Sekhemkare, sucesor de Sekhemre Khutaui, el país se divide nuevamente, Xois y luego Tanis serán las capitales del Norte en manos del militar Semenkhkare Mermesha. Mas tarde un nuevo rey, Sekhemre Seuadjtauiunificó otra vez “las dos tierras” y su sucesor Khasekhemre Neferhotep llegaría a ampliar la hegemonía egipcia hasta Biblos. Parece ser que durante el reinado deKhaneferre Sebekhotep, el sucesor de Khasekhemre, la capital de Egipto podía haber estado en Tanis, importante puerto relativamente cercano al Fayum, las prosperas tierras propiedad exclusiva de la monarquía. Durante este tiempo, el abastecimiento del ingente volumen de población, tanto autoctona como inmigrante, y la atención de la demanda exterior, convirtieron el país en un inmenso granero. Una buena administración real, algunos de los reyes que se sucedieron eran hijos de funcionarios, mantuvo durante un tiempo la economía a flote aunque supuso un incremento sustancial del poder feudal, dado el régimen agrícola imperante. Mas tarde el comercio cesaría, una serie de malas cosechas desabastecerían a la población, lo que produjo de nuevo el fraccionamiento del poder real; los príncipes de los nomos fundarían simultáneamente dinastías que extenderían su autoridad aquí y allá en virtud de eventuales alianzas, durante un tiempo llegó a existir una XIV dinastía en Xois, en el Delta, hasta que en un momento dado el Alto Egipto aparece gobernado por un tal Didumes, y el Bajo por el rey Nehesi (“negro”) del que se cree que ya era vasallo de quienes pronto invadirían Egipto, los hicsos. No sabemos hasta que punto fue una invasión traumática, ya que si bien los reyes del Imperio Nuevo se esforzaran mas adelante en dramatizar aquellos momentos, lo harán al parecer solo con el animo de reforzar el esplendor de su propia época, hoy en día se discute mucho al respecto, de hecho cabe la posibilidad de que fuera una ocupación pactada entre los enigmáticos aamu (asiáticos) llamados también heqa khasut (reyes extranjeros) y los reyes del Alto Egipto, quienes habrían entregado el Bajo Egipto sin luchar, replegándose hacia el sur, a sus propios territorios.
En la practica, aunque habían de pagar tributo, existe constancia de que hubo buenas relaciones entre los reyes del sur y los hicsos, quienes abandonado su cultura de origen, se acostumbraron a los modos egipcios rápida y profundamente, adoptando el culto real de Seth, el antiguo y tradicional dios del Alto Egipto, y entablando matrimonio con hijas de los reyes del Sur. De hecho, algunas de las listas de soberanos egipcios que han llegado hasta nosotros, forman las dinastías XV y XVI con los nombres de los reyes de Avaris, la nueva capital del Bajo Egipto.
Bibliografia: El Antiguo Egipto, Jacques Pirenne.
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Travel Impressions III
III.
There seems to be no break in the dynastic line between the IV and V dynasty. Sahure and Userkaf could be the children of Shepseskaf, although it is also possible that Userkaf was in fact the son of Princess Neferhetepes, daughter of Djedefre and some high priest of Heliopolis. In any case the essential fact is that, Heliopolis recovers again its influence, and the kings of Dynasty V do not try to supplant to Ra, as Cheops did it, but now appear as their fervent followers, hereinafter: Ra, Hathor and King formed a divine triad. The confrontation existing from Shepseskaf, among the priests of Ra and those of Ptah, it was resolved in favor of Heliopolis, because the Memphite priests appear carrying a title like servants of Ra.
The solar cult acquire hegemony over other religions. The temple of Ra, who as creative consciousness, does not need a house as the other gods, because its liturgy is held outdoors, is really a large terrace with an altar, behind which stands a pyramid truncated from which emerges an obelisk.
During the V Dynasty, the kings donated lands from their own assets to the temples and with those, the priests come to enrich themselves, perhaps to ensure their loyalty, King Neferirkare also granted tax exemptions for the temples, a privilege that ultimately will cost expensive to the crown. The clergy will establish as a new social class, consisting of the hereditary nobility, the “Iry Pat”, the princes, the “Rekh nisut” , who are the relatives of the king, and the “Imakhu”, the faithful. Also the vizier, who is the most senior civil, will adquire the title of Iry Pat, which makes him comparable to the children of kings, I imagine that to support their absolutist policy, the kings of V dynasty were forced to make big concessions. A new type of worker appears, the “perpetual servants” who work in a regime of semi-slavery, although probably many of them, given the circumstances, live significantly better than many free men, as the small landowners outside the nobility, that could not compete with the princes and their amazing real perks.
To cover the enormous costs arising from the luxury of the Court, of the worship and the big constructions, was put in place a new administrative model.The forty-two prefectures (nomos) that make up the country, in administrative matters were reduced to two, the Upper and Lower Egypt, governed by two “directors”.Besides Upper Egypt was in turn split into two, Upper Egypt predominantly agricultural, and the “new towns” from the Middle Egypt, infested of merchants. At the same time, step by step, the nomos will be feudalise, with the approval or consent of the monarchy. Since the reign of Sahure specifically, the prefecture of Un (Hermopolis Magna) is given to the family of Serefenka in a hereditary way . Must see this fact perhaps, the distancing that had emerged between royalty and the common people and the need of the monarchy to be linked to an elite increasingly bulging, created at that purpose.
The solar theology , so closely linked to the royalty, will see decreasing its influence in the country proportionately to the decline of the control of the king, so that over time, the nomos will resurrect their own local cults to the detriment of the solar worship . Appear in that moment the famous “Texts of the Pyramids “, dating back to the Predynastic period, filling the walls of the pyramid of Unas, an archaic trend that reflects the social crisis that represents the boom of the aristocracy and oligarchy, in front of the fall of religion solar and the monarchy, indeed after the death of Unas, his successor Teti, founder of the VI dynasty, came to power thanks to the aristocracy and oligarchy. Really the priests, transformed into princes, will be those that now will govern effectively their nomos, in fact, during the reign of Pepi I, the”nomarch”of Un carries the title of Hatia, hitherto reserved for the vizier and viceroys of Nekhen. At the end of the reign of Pepi I, almost the entire Upper Egypt is in the hands of princes whose office is from hereditary nature and at the same time, they are the great priests of the local god.
The son of King Pepi I, Merenre despite his youth, aware of what was coming over, he tried to curb the power of the feudal princes, placing them under the magnifying glass of a man of his confidence, Uni, who will take the responsability of the justice which was had split into the High Justice (only for the noble), whose power still retained the king, and the Baja Justice, in the hands of the prince of nomos.
Merenre had still certain military power, thanks to the bands of nubians that the King Teti had brought in order to ensure a minimum enough, since the military staff used to be harvested in the nomos and the princes could be reluctant.
The control of income tax, the only economic resource of the king, so small because of the immunities of the temples, also was entrusted to Uni, obviously the king had no trust about the good willingness of the “nomarchs”. King Merenre dies in an unexpected way, fortunately(?)for the feudal princes, and is his brother Pepi II who accesses the crown with just five years old.During the ninety years of his reign, is consummated the collapse of the Ancient Empire. At the end of his reign the own King will do an attempt to regain power, declaring void all the tax immunities granted during the last two hundred years, but the damage in the economic and social situation was so serious and so ridiculous the influence of such decrees, which was forced to unsay.
Given the weakness and disruption of the royal army , the borders of the delta were perfectly transparents to the Eastern tribes who invaded the territory, and were installed around the cities, replacing in many cases to the local workforce. Groups of “Asiatics archers” looted the cities of the delta at intervals, until reaching the Upper Egypt, as a result of these permanent assaults, trade was paralyzed, the fields were abandoned and people had lost their jobs were revolted. Rural areas came to be highly insecure and in all cities including the capital itself, Memphis, was formed such uproar that would not leave puppet with head: the title deeds of the nobility disappeared, most of rich people were despoiled completely, with the support of the petty bourgeoisie and the staff of the civil service. During this period the aristocracy had to beg work to those who were their servants. Merenre II, after a year of his reign, will disappear dragged out by a mob of insurgents. The centralized monarchy finally succumbed in the North, where cities would prosper again now as independent bourgeois republics, while in the South, the feudal princes would fight for the sovereignty.
Now beginning a chaotic period which presents a confusing political landscape, actually known as the first interim period, during which three dynasties coexist simultaneously, in Memphis we have the VII dinasty of what Manetón says that, seventy kings reigned for seventy days, in the other hand, it is find the VIII dinasty with NeferKauhor Neteribau in Abidos, a mere puppet of the prince Shemai from Koptos and finally the IX dinasty with Meribre Kheti I,at Heracleopolis. Dynasty VIII disappears without trace after Demedjibtaui Uadjkare, the successor of Neferkauhor. The independent republics of the cities in the delta and the new towns of middle Egypt, accept the authority of the king Kheti once it reinforced the borders with the support of their own urban militias, but the feudal South rise their weapons against the X heracleopolitan dynasty. In its effort to regain control of the territory, Neferkare of Heracleopolis would push to his ally the prince Hetep of Hierakompolis (Nekhen) and then the son of this, Ankhtifi, to attack the prince Khui of Edfu, an ally of the prince Antef of Thebes. Ankhtifi obedient, resulted victorious and as new Prince of Edfu, then attacked Thebes, allying with the prince of Elephantine. While at beginning did not seem to have gone wrong, the war suffered a slowdown because of a widespread famine that struck the country, after which we do not know how, is the king of Thebes Antef who is presented as a founder of the dynasty XI, who face directly with Neferkare of Heracleopolis. Both Neferkare and Antef died the same year, 2120 before the current era.
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Travel impressions II
Intro.
The Pyramids are truly impressive, however we must make an effort to imagine how they were originally, now the monotonous color of the sand, does not give us no clue, neither the unforgivable sellers of souvenirs , nor camels, much less the absurd multicolor procession of tourists. Herodotus describes the land of Egypt during the four months of the flood, like a sea, where the cities were like islands. Assuan´s Dam ended with the endemic epidemics and crocodiles, but stole his magic to the Nile. The pyramids were part of a funerary quadrangular complex , designed as a city with buildings, streets and a canal that brought water from the Nile, so it is possible imagined that the whole should be adorned with gardens. Neither Herodotus nor Diodorus of Sicily made mention about the huge fourth pyramid, maybe because it was separated from the rest or perhaps because it had been already swallowed by the desert or maybe the Persian conquerors built the fortress that would give rise to Cairo with “the bowels of Atum-Ra”, “the elemental hill” that was erected by Djedefre, seven meters and a half larger than the Great Pyramid.
We would have only two hours to try to visualize all this while we trying to get rid of the, always inopportune, vendors of beetles and turbans , besides the omnipresent police, most of them inanimate except the few unfortunate ones they were responsible for the endless task of down to the people of the enormous stone steps, where people were climbed continuously to take pictures, and is that the portraits with the pyramid to the bottom do not provide a precise idea of the volume of such pile of stones.
The awesome Sphinx controls the access to the funerary complex of Gizah, despite of Herodotus never made mention of it, may be it was covered with sand, in the times of Tutmosis IV just the head was free of sand. On the one hand, official arqueologists accept the -7500 as the date of manufacture and the king Khefren as its author. However, a curious group of specialists, of what Professor Hawass did not even want to talk, based on the observation of certain signs of erosion, apparently caused by the rain, they take back until the -12500 the date on which it was carved,when certainly still rain frequently there, what is not happens at present. they have provided indirect evidence of astronomical kind, to support by the moment their rickety theory, which link the alignment of the three pyramids with the alignment of the stars of Orion’s belt, and also claim that the Sphinx look at the East because it was where the constellation of the Lion appeared in -12500. Moreover there are eminent archaeologists who see the features of Kheops on the head and not those of Khefren, opinions for every taste.
II.
The called the Old Empire begins with Menes, or Narmada or Aha, or it may be that they were all the same, the pharaohs had the habit of having different names, one of Horus, one nisut-bity (king of the south and north), and a few more besides the grand honorary names.
There are lists of kings, as the papyrus of Turin, or what provide us Manetón, but archeology has shown that they are not very accurate, although it seems to be some consensus and for the beginning of the dynasty was accepted as the approximate date -5000. the I and II dynasties, used all its efforts on maintaining the cohesive of the two lands , but neither the feudal princes of the South nor the bourgeoisie of the cities of the North, put it easy. Initially the kings tried to keep the primal institutions in each region, in the vain attempt to maintain an image of normalcy, until in the reign of King KhaseKhemui, things get ugly. As he ventured on an expedition to Nubia, the feudal prince of Nubt, Peribsen, taking advantage of his absence, was made to proclaim king and Egypt was divided in two,again. The war that claimed tens of thousands dead, was won by KhaseKhemui, after which he proceeded to exclude the feudal princes from the political scene and controling the bourgeois through intendants real. Heliopolis remained a sacred city, but the monarchy will no longer require its approval, to legitimize his own power.
The institutions of both North and South were emptied of contents and filling the resulting skeleton administrative with people associate to the king. Over time administrative model of the North also ended up being used in the South.
Besides the solar cosmogony of Heliopolis which dates from the era of the kingdom of Buto, the Thot´s cosmogony survives in Hermopolis , somewhat different, more physical and perhaps more ancient, still influenced by the Asian cosmogony. Solar religion reveals that in the primordial chaos (Nun), although anything had been created yet, Atum, however, was already diluted on it , as the power of generating or the spirit of life, then after recognizing to itself , came to existence, for later, unfolding to itself , to give rise to the god Ra, the concience of Atum.
Atum-Ra created the air (Shu) and the fire (Tefnut) of whose union was born the god Earth (Geb) and the goddess of sky (Nut), parents of Osiris, Isis, Seth and Neftis, two couples who come to signify the principles of good and evil. Nine gods in total, the Ennead of Heliopolis clearly syncretistic is a real jumble that somehow summarizes the various stages through which society had to pass since its inception. Osiris besides of representative of the goodness assumes the role of creator of humanity and all life, also he is Nepri, god of grain, provider of new life, symbol of the resurrection although his main role is the king of beyond, in fact one of his epithets is “The first of the Westerners”. The myth of Osiris is very well known thanks to Plutarch, the legend of this god-man developed since the beginning of the Predynastic period, it seems clear that not only reflects the differences between gods, but also those of the ancient kingdoms of the north and south, also summarizes the close relations between Egypt and coast of Syria from the early times.
In Hermopolis, Thot, into the role of the god Atum, is surrounded by four couples of gods:Nunu and Nunet symbolizing the primal water, Kaku and Kaket, darkness, Hehu and Hehet, space, Niu and Niut, immobility, curiously the elements male and female are represented as frogs and snakes, respectively. The representation of the chaos that contains to Atum (Thot) is a swamp, from which arises a primal hill, on which there is an egg, from where arises the Sun. is a version with evolutionary dye, where things become each other, that differs from the version of Heliopolis, where Ra is the creative will. The idea of the supremacy of Ra was spreaded rapidly, primarily to replace the influence of Horus in the pantheon of gods, too tied to the still recent quarrels between the two lands, in addition, this philosophy was interesting to the royalty, more and more inclined towards absolutism, although however the Kings never left the cult of Horus.
During the III dynasty, was stablished a complex bureaucratic machine, the Civil Service is in itself a new power within the state, and the most senior bosses, over time will acquire the status previously held by the nobility. As for the priests of Heliopolis ended up being appointed directly by the king, may be the case of the legendary Imhotep, chief architect, chancellor (maximum office of the state) of the famous king Djeser and High Priest of Ra. They begin the era of the pyramids builders. By then it was began to use the cartridge (shenu) to contain the royal names.
All workers recruited by the state were free men, with all rights and obligations, only prisoners of war were considered slaves of the king, it seems that law and morality in this respect was very strict, it seems that we can affirm that during the Old Empire did not exist slavery in Egypt.
In Memphis which became a great religious center at the expense of Heliopolis, under the auspices of the monarchy, there was developed a new doctrine, consistent with the ambitions of royalty, in which, Ptah assumed the role of Atum-Ra in the diagram of the solar cosmogony and where in fact all the gods were aspects or avatars of Ptah, emanated from him. From trend monotheistic, shows a remarkable depth, handling concepts like the intelligence or discernment (sia) represented by Horus, the determination or decision (hu) symbolized by Thot, and where Ur (Atum) ancient god of the universe was the heart (the intelligence) and tongue ( the will) of Ptah. Memphite Theology permeated the thinking not only of Egyptians but of the presocratic greek philosophers, and through them to the modern world.
To Snefru, who inaugurated the Fourth dynasty are attributed the crooked pyramid from Dahchur (near from which, Huni had built, shortly before the end of the III Dynasty) and the tower of Meidum clearly influenced by Asian style. While Snefru King will be remembered as a person gentle and humane, his son Cheops (Chufu) go down in history as a tyrant and a despot if we have to believe to the Memphite priests, during his tenure there was a radical break between the clergy and the palace, reaching even to be closed the temples. At this height of absolutism, the royalty is divinized, the king is Ra incarnate, and by extension, the senior management, would become great priests: judges will be priests of Maat (justice), the head of administration will be high priest of Thot (the Law, the Act), etc.
Still is discussed the authorship of the great pyramid of Giza, due to the shortage of evidence that confirm it, only has been found a squalid cartridge painted on a place hidden inside the pyramid, containing the name of Cheops, only physical evidence if we do not take account the testimony of Herodotus, whose on the other hand Diodorus of Sicily contradicts. However, under excessive ego of Cheops, it is plausible to believe that he was the author of such a bunch of stones. The conflict with the clergy, was continued during the mandates of the sons of Cheops; Khefren (Khafra)and Djedefre, but it was relaxed with Hordjedef (who became a vegetarian and chaste, in a moment of lighting) and Baufre. Micerinos (Men Kaure) son of Khefren , returned to the pleasure of building pyramids, but his son Shepseskaf tried a revolution, abandoning the name of Ra, the cartridge, the pyramid and all you have to do with solar worship, maybe permeated by the Memphite philosophy, developing a policy of equality both in religious as well as the social, which earned him to be more hated by the upper classes that Cheops himself, though his memory among the most popular was near from the authentic devotion.
Bibl.: Jacques Pirenne, ” History of Ancient Egypt”.
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Tags: Dahchur, Imhotep, Meidum, Shepseskaf, Snefru
Travel Impressions
Intro.
The airport was no different from other airports, long corridors and empty , where no one stops, that lead to the hall of the mechanical gateways, where everyone expects to have no lost their luggage, but this time, before going out, we had to go through the control of passports . Within his cabin, the guard sealed passports with rythmic and repeated blows of tampon, he look us something frown, as if we were partly responsible for the tendinitis that undoubtedly he has to suffer in silence. Then suddenly he made to disappear our documentation behind a curtain that divides the cockpit, where, at least, two or three women dressed almost nuns-like, piled inside that cubicle, they made hardly some kind of testing before returning us, the passport and calm.Like almost everything man, with an identical mustache and haircut, the guide from our agency was waiting for us smiling, with a poster aloft, putting to us aside after a short greeting, as soon as we went out from the metal detector.
At night, travel by minibus to the hotel was a little shocking, move around the city at that time seemed like a really risky thing, an alluvion of vehicles, demanding the pass each other, playing repeatedly their horns, crowded the highways in all directions, while passers with children by the hand, they crossed indolently among the traffic, apparently risking their lifes. I did not see any traffic light, it appeared that there were none, not seemed to be necessary, there was no evidence of anxiety on the faces of those involved, nor I saw any accident , it was surprisingly the normality.
The microbus stopped at a barrier at fifty meters from the hotel entrance, then a soldier with a trained dog was lifted from a kitchen´s chair, and a little bored, they walk around the vehicle, the guide told us,in jocular tone, that they only were seeking bombs. Soon after, we had to cross under the strict supervision of a police officer, a scanner at the entrance to the hotel, I remembered that phrase that the Doctor of Health Abroad said, a few days before , “do not worry, it’s a very peaceful country.” We just leave from the scanner, when in the center of the reception, an elegant circular great room with large windows giving the river, suddenly, we meet to a woman, singing a soft classical melody while she was playing piano at the same time, something which I found disconcerting given the circumstances. I realized that there was an “happy angel” when I paid 30 euros for a visa, to enter the country, on which it had printed that it cost $ 15.
The hotel was splendid, sited in the heart of the city, nestled at the tip of an island in the middle of the river, from what it takes its name. We could sleep there only one night. We breathe, literally, when finally climbed into the room, so tired, after nine hours between shipments, waiting at airports, flights, we just would have four or five hours to rest before starting the next day’s excursion. Until then, everything had been pure routine, but in reality and despite everything, we felt that it had gone quite well. The hotel terrace offered a breathtaking view of the city, the circulatory frenzy seemed to have waned somewhat at this hour, I spent a few minutes away out there, but what kept me there was not the pretty reflection of the lights in the water, it was to know that behind the mist night, behind the lights of the city, within walking distance, on the outskirts, from several thousand years ago, what so far only had been the subject of many hours of reading.
I.
Within the triangle formed by the ancient cities of Iunu (Heliopolis), Jem (Letopolis) and Men nefer (Memphis), it is deploying on the bisector from the vertex of Heliópolis to the incenter, Cairo (Al Qahira Masra, too) is also the point from which it opens up the arms of the Nile delta.
Letopolis acquired dominance, with the approval of the holy city of Heliopolis, after the Coalition Osiríaca of Busiris in Lower Egypt, was defeated by the coalition of Nubt from Upper Egypt, in favor of Seth. Great changes occurred at this time, in the form of government of Lower Egypt and eventually into people’s lives, from the times of the social revolution of Anedjti in Busiris, where the kings were elected by the assembly, before the reign Osiris’s own (yes, earlier) who died at 28 years of his mandate during a battle against the South, until the establishment of hereditary monarchy during the regency of Horus in Letópolis. Changes that did not like in the coalition and caused the sedition of Hermópolis (Per Djehuti) and Sais, and that only forged with the definitive establishment of monarchy of Horus (in the style of Letópolis) in Buto, we do not know how. We know that the reason for the discord was Abydos, Busiris´s colony in Upper Egypt, it was founded by Anedjti to support the expeditions in search of gold. Over time most of the economically strong cities in the delta, founded colonies in Middle Egypt, mainly to protect the traffic of their goods. The war was inevitable and the victory of the coalition under the mandate of Buto against the feudal lords of the South in Edfu, if did not result in the annexation of Upper Egypt, meant the destruction of feudal power. Violent social movements in Upper Egypt rose to Min (god of agriculture at the Osiris style ) to the rank of official religion at the expense of Seth, begining in Ipu (Panopolis), where someone outside the nobility, came to power by a similar process which led to Anedjti in Busiris to wrest control of the upper classes and with the probable support of Buto spread their revolution to Gebti (Koptos), which was important for its connection to the Wadi Hammamat, the route of the caravans to the Red Sea, from there the revolt is extended to all cities in the South, which all of them systematically adopted the new cult of Min, a situation that led to the advent of the monarchy in Nekhen (Hierakompolis) Two states, Nekhen and Buto, a single religion, but did not last long, The absolute power of Buto soon became unbearable for most of the nomos of Lower Egypt that eventually split off, moment that Asian tribes took advantage to invade the territory. The prints from the handle of the knife of Gebel el-Arak seem to see these events. The Hierakompolis monarchy moved his capital downriver, to Abydos (Tinis), ready to face the situation.During this period, was born the first dynasty unified the two lands, monarchy of the south, from its new capital at Abydos took control, struggling with the Asians, and conquering at the same time the delta´s lands. in the Narmer´s palette, you can see the ten decapitated bodies of the magistrates of Metelis (Hermopolis mikra), the city that led the last resistance after that Buto was dismantled. The kings of the south were the first to use the two crowns, the bee of Sais and Buto, with the cane of Nekhen, hieroglyphic symbols of the kings of Upper and Lower Egypt. All these facts are prior to the year -5000, and contemporary with social phenomena that marked the end of the Uruk´s age in Mesopotamia, prior to the establishment of what has been called the Archaic Period dynastic.
References: “History of Ancient Egypt”, Jacques Pirenne.
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Tags: Msr, Horus, Osiris, Metelis, Uruk, Buto, Hermopolis, Heliopolis, Letopolis, Men nefer, Gebel-el-Arak, Narmer, Anedjti
Ethic vs. Capital
French Revolution, after the American independence war, was the climax of a situation of widespread social unrest throughout the Western world in the late eighteenth century. The obvious counter-revolutionary aristocracy opposed a fierce resistance, so the process became a bitter conflict. Concepts such as the political left and right, were born to the world at that time, directly from the French National Assembly. The bourgeoisie, with the invaluable support of the masses, after a decade of revolutionary government, full of intrigues and nonsense, was released from the blood´s rights of kings, the feudal aristocracy and the privileges of the clergy, however, were excluded from his project to the farmers and workers, those who had largely the merit of the success of the revolution, inter alia they argued that only those who have something, they can value it and thus preserve and defend it (?), putting in that way, end once and for all to the democratic sense of the revolution. The Wiki-biographies of Babeuf and Fouché, illustrate suitably this fraud.. (To Fouché is attributed the fatherhood of the phrase “Every man has his price, only it needs to find it out, however he had to send it to Babeuf to the guillotine, could he not determine what was his price?).
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babeuf
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Fouch% C3% A9
In a short space of time, since the early nineteenth century, the triumphant bourgeoisie was split; the banking sector, the big landlords and magnates of the stock exchange, they assumed the role of the old nobility, emerging as genuine financial aristocracy, detrimental the industrial bourgeoisie, subject to the first, and the petty bourgeoisie, the middle class across the breadth of its social spectrum.
From then until today, the banking sector has the “tablets of destinies” (1), and the example they are giving is regrettable to say the least.
This financial elite, oligarchy in the purest state, is responsible for countless environmental atrocities and anonymous genocides to get economic gain, by too long time. Of course that as a pressure group par excellence,they can afford, among other things, pass the ethic below the triumph arc, there’s the scandal of the AIG in the U.S. , the last to date.
http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gtj03MvkIBjnxibte_d_mH4qMJlQ
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_International_Group
Man is a creature in certain respects fragile and extremely weak compared to the temptations, and also often confuses easily the success in life, with the economic prosperity and social. Gives the impression that money dehumanizes people, but money is one thing, is not guilty of anything, what really unworthy us of this, is the attitude of some people, it is not economic inequality, is the exploitation of man by man, as a system to hold it.
This outrage which represents the bad distribution of wealth, was in the past more clear than now, the power is in the depths of the dazed sea of the middle class. Today, in the welter of the excessive cities, is very dificult to distinguish by appearance, for his way of thinking or the car you can drive, to the owner of a multinational from a plumber, but this is not really more than one mirage subtly developed for this purpose.
This is why an Islamic fundamentalist does not distinguish between a subway wagon full of ordinary workers, and the luxury cottage property of the multimillionaire president of a football club.
Hinduism holds, whoever allows himself be trapped by the material things, does not escape the wheel of births, which is the worst that can happen to one, the rest religions also rant about selfishness, greed or usury (often in a display of hypocrisy of the worst class), but it is a shame that the burglars, I mean to the magnates,(a wordplay a bit stupid is possible in castilian, but not in English => “magnate” means rich man, “mangante” = burglar) this sort of threats do not impress them at all.
Do with them what was done with the nobility in their day, would stay a little out of place at the moment, those who really have reason to end the present “old regime” are too far and they have no means. I do not speak of the Arab world, although they are victims sufficiently and with means enough, unfortunately they also are too guilty, to lead morally to those excluded from the first world. We’ll see already.
“Doesn´t it happiest who has got more, but who needs less.” I don´t know the source, I like this old saying because it sounds very secular and it can be extrapolated to other meaning levels of the strictly personal. At the corporate level “It is not better the company that has got more assets, but one which does not need subsidies”, even dare I say “It is not better the company that has got more employees, but which requires less” (I am a technocrat, I love science and technology), “It is not better a city because has more hospitals (more police, fire, aldermen, traffic, tourists, etc.)but which requires less”, or “No is the best organization that which has more rules or laws,
but which requires less”, gives food for thought.
Finally I wonder how long the equatorial forests hold, to the pace of logging companies and landowners. The desert is advancing. It Comes to my head a movie where some aliens fairly repulsives, disguised as humans, after infiltrating the political and economic elite, they tried to adapt the earth´s climate , too wet for their vital needs , by forcing desertification. Although their behavior is not very different from those of fiction, I sincerely hope that the influential people, are real human beings and they have grandchildren, to worry about.
We need a new revolution, mankind needs a different society of today, a project in which it trusts, a better model.
(1). In Sumerian mythology “slats of destinations” represent the power, then, just in the hands of the gods.
Filed under: abuso, capitalismo, dioses, economia de mercado, estafa | Leave a Comment
Currently, the enigma of the origin of human language is in the hands of paleontologists and archaeologists, linguists have enough task with the invention of the syncretic Indo-european, a myth depending who we listen.
The position of the larynx in humans does not allow us to drink and breathe through our nose at once, which can make the rest of mammals without any difficulty, a disadvantage which also multiplies the possibilities of our phonic apparatus , which puts it directly below the spotlight of investigators, but as neither cartilage nor ligaments nor muscles fossilized, they were forced to point to another part of our morphology, specifically some features of the skull base can provide information about the position of the larynx. Unfortunately due to the scarcity of fossil remains, it is not possible to say whether or not Neanderthals had language (which if so would open the door to speculation about which words we could have assimilated from them) but at least it has been found that the phonetic capabilities of Australopithecus were not higher than those of chimpanzees.
This does not mean that we are the only species that has the ability to verbally communicate with their fellows, leaving aside the still hypothetical language of some aquatic mammals, monkeys are able to give voice alert in front of the presence of a predator using different voices for each of the possible threats and we know that this is so, for the reactions induced in the group: to pay attention to the soil if it is a snake, or up in the case of the eagle, etc. . Moreover, a bonobo named Kanzi understands about a hundred and fifty words of English spoken. However, no primate other than ours, has a deliberately coded language because they lack a suitable phonic apparatus and as the authors of the “chosen species” say: cannot be composed any music for instruments that do not exist, Although it has been shown that chimpanzees and gorillas are capable of learning the language of the deaf and express ideas in this way, in their natural environment they have never felt the need to establish a comprehensive code of gestures, therefore it seems that it is necessary further neurological processes in order to produce it.
We are so accustomed to using words when we express ourselves or when we reflect that we do not realize the importance of language, how far we are from the existence by dint of sensations, pure vital impetus, as the animals and football fans. Faced with the stark natural selection of Darwin, the language represents an effort to bring together the individuals and is the first tool that allows us to list, classify and order, ultimately to analyse, that it is the basis of scientific knowledge and therefore of human progress.
The mystery is served, the debate about the origin of language continues, while the evolutionists are convinced that it was simply the result of evolutionary process and strives to find the evidence, creationists insist on the supernatural intervention, briefly documented through different cultures and sources.
http://www.ucm.es/info/especulo/numero9/atapuerc.html (Spanish)
Filed under: Darwin, antropologia, arqueologia linguistica, bonobo | Leave a Comment
About Sharks and Dragons
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A couple of days ago, I attended the annual pass of transparencies of the company, was a reunion of the group work, where we were informed, inter alia, the slowing of business activity in the current economic times and the new basic guidelines to deal with it. There was some display of elaborate euphemisms, for instance calling the stagnation of sales “to have reached maturity in the evolutionary curve of the product ” was undoubtedly one of the most delusional, there were graphic, showing numbers and percentages incontrovertible (incontestable therefore), only at the end, about to finish the conversation, the Jabberwock was mentioned.
So far the message had been: “Efficiency is not enough. To be effective we must be efficient in the shortest possible time “, that is, the sooner win the greatest amount of money. These rushes were a sign of the predictable course where things would go, yet , the targets were achieved. This kind of frantic race towards the dividend, has a very negative impact on the social fabric and as a result, enthralled by the illusion of luxury and ostentation, once more, cajoled by the comfort, because the money does not give happiness as the saying repeat insistently, always harping on someone, people had departed even more from people. During the reunion, this concept of “effectiveness” was abolished, a new manifesto was erected in its place: Invaded by an unwarranted anxiety, which it had been stressing throughout this worker’s symposium, the English voice “jabberwocking” appeared on the scene, which actually happened almost unnoticed, probably because the brain ignores what is not understood, not only there was no comment but it was one of those rare silences of which people say ” an angel has passed”, until the boss who gave voice to the transparencies added a brief explanation that I broad a little: The Jabberwock, in Castilian, Galimatazo or Jerigondor is a big, ugly beast like a dragon. Painted by John Tenniel, which besides Sir, he was also cartoonist cartoons back at the end of the nineteenth century, based on descriptions of the poem Jabberwocky, by Lewis Carroll in 1872, which is included in his book, “Alice Through the Looking Glass”. Strangely, despite having prefaced the complete works of this author and no doubt have read, Borges does not include the Jabberwock in the Book of Imaginary Beings. And as in uffish thought he stood,
The Jabberwock, with eyes of flame, Tulgey Came whiffling through the wood, And Burble as it came! Stanza that we find in Wikipedia and translated: Y así, mientras cabilaba firsuto.
¡¡Hete al Galimatazo, fuego en los ojos, que surge hedoroso del bosque turgal y se acerca raudo y borguejeando!! This same girl said that in his house, is synonymous of saying things without sense. According to Collins “to jabber “means “farfullar”. Jabberwocking at work is, an activity that it reduces costs, it improves profits, but this deficit is not perceived as such. To illustrate the invention, was used as an example, that airline what decided to remove the olives from the salad, no one noticed and that meant thousands of dollars of savings for the company. I dont Know why I remembered the rape scandal (in Spain), fraud that ruined the lives of many people before anyone noticing. When the reunion ended, someone was asked about what he had similar exposure, remember that with some sarcasm and replied with his hand making the gesture of rubbing his thumb with the index: The response was very welcome and widely acclaimed companion. I sometimes think that never learns. I left early. http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jabberwocky http://xalva.blogspot.com |
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Borges, in his poem “remorse” said:
“I have committed the worst sin that a man can commit, I was not happy.”
Then I was sixteen years and those were the words of an old man, the truth is that I thought to understand what he was talking about. Since then my life could be summarized as a succession of errors (he also spoke in that way of his own life), which led me to this point, vanishing during the elapsed time any other possible now, result of missed opportunities or decisions which I did not take and could have led my steps to a different future, such as paths that bifurcate, that depart to an unfathomable destination.
Also he pass me the taste for the etymology and the language history, and perhaps I owe the interest that, in those days, I put in the subject of Latin, dedication with which I got a perplexing score in the final test. I do not Know what happens in the private schools of priests, but in the public schools,Latin was by far the most discredited of all subjects, accused of useless, senseless and decadent, it weighed like a stone in the souls of most students, so that who showed some interest for this subject cursed, he was named “majara”, which was then the name for the freaks.
It was a pity that the world that he lived not forgave his tepidity as politician, it was probably his biggest mistake, but we can not pretend that a person which denied the policy would embody something apart from a peaceful anarchism, as he own once described his political attitude. He should not accept the award from the Chilean Academy in times of Pinochet; neither conferences, or his anti-racist was able to erase this fact,simple and complex at once. Due to this probably, despite many nominations he ever received that undoubtedly deserved, Nobel.
I love the way he mixed present, past and future, alloying them in a solid form brighter than mere reality. Avid devourer of books, dreamed that the paradise was an infinite library. Not to hate Germanic mythology during Hitler´s times, made him suspect among those who will not know him. He lived a meaningless time, a world that was not his world. During the Falklands War remained a British Pro openly in an atmosphere heated by the Argentine military junta, an attitude that no one understood.
Sometimes I do not think he died of old (despite I never imagined young), who was not blind, I like to think that at some point he went, through the moon of a mirror either, to the other side, a place, a time, where the library of Alexandria never was destroyed, where nobody ever stack books to burn, maybe to a maze of paper, where he is straining a large garden, whose hedges are made with countless volumes of brainy authors like him.
http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorge_Luis_Borges
http://xalva.blogspot.com
Filed under: El Inmortal, el libro de arena | Leave a Comment
Africa.
image: markpowerblog.com/2008/06/17/the-lost-continent/
Amazing, mind-bending, what a courage have the Somali pirates, kidnapping oil tankers, they must be crazy.
Most of the people don´t know what is happening in Africa, in reality we are unable to imagine it, despite the news and some documentary widely ignored. We are not interested, whatever is happening, it happens too far and however despite our emotional blindness, on our shores arrive corpses, not just boats.
For centuries the West has disrupted the social fabric and culture of Africa, first with slavery, religion and then later, in the nineteenth century, colonial imperialism, religion again and again slavery. Africa is a continent left to his fate, divided by artificial borders created a century ago by the industrial bourgeoisie in Europe, according to the agreement of Berlin in 1884. Just 33 years have passed since the end of decolonization that began in 1955 and, paradoxically, we ignore the problem as if the thing is not with us.
The cradle of humanity, is now the tomb of one and all of the fundamental human rights; a pattern of violence, famine and chronic diseases endless, shapes the reality of the continent which we were born, except for some remaining metropolis where survive the interests trade of the developed world, which only accentuates the overwhelming imbalance between its peoples. To make matters worse, climate change is drying up major lakes, which are in danger of disappearing in a matter of decades, which obviously won´t help to improve the situation. To Europeans, have sold us the image of Africa mysterious and exotic, dangerous and sensual, like in the Tarzan films, where the white man, (the oppressor), was a poor orphan, barely covered with a loincloth, lost in a vast land brutal, uncivilized, heathen, and that despite all this, he got to be respected by men and animals thanks to an invaluable strength and agility, plus a powerful throat of lush hues. Pure gloating because meanwhile cannons and rifles from Western civilizing, tried to slay the tribes of the Zulus whose were reluctant to lose their independence, in order to paving the way for the greed and speculation of traffickers and the clergy.
Now there is no need to kill them, because they are doing themselves, we just have to sell them weapons, so here the true nature of war is revealed in all its purity : an investment of which, somebody expects quick benefits, a business like any other, a commercial invention as Christmas or Valentine’s Day. Now a handful of Somalis have directed their weapons against the commercial interests of the developed world rather than against themselves, after all maybe they are not so crazy, just desperate enough.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZE-ON66_NyU
(interview with Mbuyi Kabunda Professor of International Relations at the University of Basel and member of the Institute of African Studies at the Autonomous University of Madrid.)
http://elproyectomatriz.wordpress.com/2008/05/13/africa-rubor-de-olvido-y-silencio-i/
(The history of Europe is an incomplete story.)
http://xalva.blogspot.com
Filed under: Tarzan, descolonizacion, patera, telediario | Leave a Comment
When men exercised of gods III.
What are the economic actions applied by the president of the United States to stem the crisis? To find out, I typed in the browser “bush plans” and the first thing that comes out is this:
“Bush plan is the internet home of bush pilots, both new and experienced. We spent over two months in Alaska flying the best bush plans: Cessna, Piper, Beech, DeHavilland airplanes and other aircraft suitable for bush flying. “
I had refine the search, so I added the word “crisis” and I got the following:
“WASHINGTON – The government with the weight of several options to ease the worst financial crisis in decades, according to a government fucionario. However, having more banks with bad debts, an idea that was brought on the stock market on Thursday, is not a certainty. ” (?).
The machines translation, though not very accurate, are always fun, at the end after a while of fruitless searches, in the newspaper Pravda online, I found this:
The plan for the crisis of Bush: The biggest transfer of cash in world history.
U.S.A. could learn from China
It’s been called “financial socialism”, “socialism for the rich” and “lemon socialism.” But what the Bush administration called “rescue” for financial institutions is the largest transfer of money from ordinary workers to the rich, in the history of the world.
The proposed program to buy a mountain of non-performing loans and other worthless assets of banks and finance companies will cost 700 billion dollars to 1 trillion.
This money comes from taxes on American taxpayers, most of whom are ordinary workers, around $ 2500 for each U.S. citizen will go to the hands of banks and financial companies.
The cost for each family of four will be around $ 10,000. This money could have been used for health care, to improve education, scientific research agenda for social care, for environmental protection; or a thousand other useful social purposes.
Alternatively, it could be used to cut taxes of ordinary people, or even to help them buy their homes. In its place he is donating to banks and financial companies whose managers and owners are among the richest in the world. These measures represent a massive redistribution of wealth from the working poor to the rich.
Learning from China
The argument of the Bush administration – faithfully repeated by the media in the U.S. – there is no other way. ” The idea is that the system of the USA, and the jobs of workers in the U.S. included, can be safeguarded only through this transfer of cash to banks.
In fact, this argument is incorrect.
The government must act to protect obviously banking and finance in an economic crisis of this magnitude. But if banks are ruined or are insolvent, a fair solution would be to buy or nationalize the banks, not their debts. Then, in that case, the taxpayers would receive something of value - a new responsible and stable banking system that belongs to the people, instead of debts without worth.
In China, such a solution would seem common sense. With its socialist market economy growing up a 10% per year, the bank of the Chinese government played a dominant role by providing a stable base for the financing of Chinese economic development.
But the possibility of taking control or nationalization of banks in the U.S. has not been mentioned by any political figure in the U.S.
http://english.pravda.ru/world/asia/24-09-2008/106441-bush_crisis_plan-0
Now, the G20 will meet, “the big of the Earth”, the “developed” countries, the geniuses of finance, that is, those responsible for the crisis. They claim nothing less than attempting to agree a new global economic order but they just really pretend that we trust them, just say that I believe, it will be probably with the aim of preventing the fall of public consumption and a massive withdrawal of funds resulting from any possible widespread panic, they want to give the idea that everything is controlled: be quiet guys, we are working on this. They also want senior executives, though they are junior, can not collect more than 400,000 euros a month and not per day. and even so, comparing this figure, to two million charged to a TV presenter or between 20,000 and 30,000 charged by most part of citizenship annually, I can not imagine how hard the work is played to deserve such a reward. Because, some people have been earning $ 17,000 per hour, this is about $ 150,000,000 per year, a figure almost certainly greater than the annual budget of more than one of 198 countries worldwide.
http://xalva.blogspot.com
Filed under: G20, bush, crisis | Leave a Comment
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